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Committee Opinion | Doc. 12973 | 25 June 2012
Multiple discrimination against Muslim women in Europe: for equal opportunities
Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons
A. Conclusions of the committee
(open)1. The Committee on Migration,
Refugees and Displaced Persons welcomes the report by the rapporteur of
the Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination, Ms Athina Kyriakidou,
which highlights the contribution of Muslim women to European society
and supports the draft resolution proposed.
2. The committee notes the many important questions raised in
the report and welcomes the innovative perspective taken by the
rapporteur who looks at the issue of empowerment of Europe’s Muslim
women, highlighting their efforts to achieve gender equality and
equal opportunities.
3. From a migrant perspective, the committee underlines the need
to take into account the process of feminisation of migration and
the specific patterns of female migration. While family reunification
remains the most feminised type of migration, migrant women are
increasingly turning to irregular forms of migration as a result
of their search for a better life for themselves and their families.
4. The committee strongly supports the argument that Council
of Europe member States need to take a range of positive measures
in order to create the necessary conditions and support the process
of empowerment and integration of Muslim women with a migrant background.
Such measures need to promote equal rights and fair chances, allow
non-discriminatory access to education and employment as well as
to citizenship and political rights, and encourage their full participation
in public life. Moreover, it is necessary to convey a more truthful
picture of migrants in general and Muslim women in particular to
European public opinion.
B. Proposed amendments to the draft resolution
(open)While emphasising its full support to the draft resolution tabled by the Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination, the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Displaced Persons proposes the following amendments:
Amendment A (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, after paragraph 2, insert the following new paragraph:
“Many Muslim women are migrants or their descendants and face particular problems in the process of feminisation of migration. These problems include, inter alia, restrictions on family reunification and recourse to irregular migration due to the closing of regular channels of migration.”
Amendment B (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, paragraph 6.1.6, after the word “Europe’s”, insert the words “ethnic and religious”.
Amendment C (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, paragraph 6.2.2, replace the words “have managed to reconcile their Muslim religious faith with their European identity” with “have been successful in European society”.
Amendment D (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, paragraph 6.2.3, after the words “specific training”, insert the words “on tolerance”.
Amendment E (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, after paragraph 6.2.3. add the following new sub-paragraph:
“promote family reunification policies and access to nationality and dual nationality for migrants and their descendants as a means of integration and ensure that there is no discrimination in terms of gender, religion or ethnicity in the implementation of the laws and rules relating to these policies.”
Amendment F (to the draft resolution)
In the draft resolution, after paragraph 6.2.5, insert the following new sub-paragraph:
“allocate sufficient funds for the teaching of the language of the host country”.
C. Explanatory memorandum by Ms Erkal Kara, rapporteur for opinion
(open)1. Introduction: Europe’s Muslim women – a migrant’s perspective
1. Estimates put the number of
Muslims in Europe at between 40 and 60 million, 
including
between 15 and 20 million in the European Union – a number that
is expected to increase significantly. These figures do not take
into account the rising number of conversions to Islam among native
Europeans as well as irregular migrants of Islamic faith. While
the report points out the lack of official data on the exact size
and composition of Europe’s Muslim population, there is also a need
for both genderand migrant-specific statistics broken down, inter alia, by age, origin, field
of employment, legal status, etc. Only the availability of detailed
genderand migrant-disaggregated data enables the development and
implementation of specific policies tackling the issues of equality
and integration of Europe’s Muslim women effectively.
including
between 15 and 20 million in the European Union – a number that
is expected to increase significantly. These figures do not take
into account the rising number of conversions to Islam among native
Europeans as well as irregular migrants of Islamic faith. While
the report points out the lack of official data on the exact size
and composition of Europe’s Muslim population, there is also a need
for both genderand migrant-specific statistics broken down, inter alia, by age, origin, field
of employment, legal status, etc. Only the availability of detailed
genderand migrant-disaggregated data enables the development and
implementation of specific policies tackling the issues of equality
and integration of Europe’s Muslim women effectively.2. Europe’s Muslim women are an integral part of European society.
Muslims have lived in the Balkan and Caucasus regions, in the Iberian
Peninsula, in Cyprus, Sicily and Malta for centuries and autochthonous Muslim
communities are still present today. The majority of the population
in Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and
Turkey are Muslims. In many of the other Council of Europe member
States, and in particular in western European countries, Muslims
have settled as migrants. This includes those who came in the context
of decolonialisation, migrant workers as well as refugees and asylum
seekers.
and
Turkey are Muslims. In many of the other Council of Europe member
States, and in particular in western European countries, Muslims
have settled as migrants. This includes those who came in the context
of decolonialisation, migrant workers as well as refugees and asylum
seekers.3. As a result of different immigration policies, family reunification
and settlement began to alter the demographic, social and political
dynamics of Europe’s Muslim communities in the course of the 1970s
and 1980s with an increasing feminisation of migration over recent
years. The report highlights that women currently represent more
than 52% of the immigration flow to Europe. While women arrive increasingly
in their own right and as heads of family, many women continue to
move in the context of family reunification, which remains the most
feminised type of migration.
4. In spite of the fact that migration often has a negative connotation,
it has contributed in a positive way to the development and spread
of civilisations. In fact, due to migration, societies have further
developed their creative capacities and dynamism. For this reason,
migration should not be perceived only in terms of its negative
consequences. We should not also forget that through the feminisation
of migration, it is women who benefit the most from migration.
5. Despite the fact that many of Europe’s Muslim migrants have
lived in their countries of residence for a long time, the report
mentions that only a small proportion have obtained the citizenship
of their country of residence. This illustrates the tendency in
Council of Europe member States in recent years to restrict access to
nationality for migrants and their descendants. The Committee on
Migration has underlined in the past that policy and practice in
Council of Europe member States do not sufficiently take into account
the specific patterns of female migration while introducing even
stricter rules on family-related migration.
6. As a consequence, women – who are most affected by these measures
– increasingly turn to irregular forms of migration. Muslim women
in an irregular situation are particularly vulnerable to human trafficking
and exploitation. Little is known about the real extent of these
problems due to the fact that they are rarely reported. The Parliamentary
Assembly, in its Resolution
1509 (2006), addressed the situation of irregular migrants and stressed
the need to protect their human rights.
7. Furthermore, I would like to point out here that although
Ms Athina Kyriakidou’s report is comprehensive in many aspects,
it does not emphasise enough the necessity to accept migration by
Muslim women as their basic individual right and freedom in search
of better living conditions.
8. Muslim women who come to Europe as asylum seekers, in many
cases, face gender-related persecution or gender-based violence,
which may give rise to claims for international protection.
9. The Assembly has in the past focused on integration of migrants
and migrant women as well as on discrimination against Muslims and
human rights violations suffered by Muslim women. Future
work needs to look at the issue of Muslim women from a different
perspective, which takes into account the voices of Muslim women
in present-day Europe and considers them as actors of change, while
pointing out the obstacles they face on their way to empowerment
as highlighted by the rapporteur of the Committee on Equality and
Non-Discrimination.
Future
work needs to look at the issue of Muslim women from a different
perspective, which takes into account the voices of Muslim women
in present-day Europe and considers them as actors of change, while
pointing out the obstacles they face on their way to empowerment
as highlighted by the rapporteur of the Committee on Equality and
Non-Discrimination.2. The context: European public opinion
10. European public opinion has
a rather hostile image of migrants and of Islam. Since 11 September
2001, the political climate has become increasingly uncomfortable
and security questions have dominated public policies to the detriment
of integration policies. Although only a small minority of Muslims
in Europe follow orthodox or extremist teachings, Islam has been
at the centre of public debate and has often been caricatured as
a “fundamentalist” religion that by default puts women into a position
of “submission”.
11. It should be pointed out, however, that the fact that some
politicians present a hostile image of migrants and thus declare
the end of multiculturalism does not mean that multiculturalism
is no longer valid. It is the common ground for the present-day
international community and, therefore, living in harmony with different cultures
is an indispensable condition of our times; it is a reality to be
learned and well managed.
12. Media attention, political debates and public discourse were
often articulated on narrow issues like the headscarf and the integral
veil, forced marriages, polygamy and so-called “honour crimes”,
creating anxiety among the non-Muslim European public. These controversies
exacerbated the perception of Islam as a challenge for European
values and reinforced the feeling of stigmatisation of Muslim communities
in Europe. It is rare to see reports of Muslim women as success
stories of integration. It is interesting to note, however, that
the media gives little attention and coverage to racist attacks
occurring against members of minority groups in Europe.
3. Beyond the headscarf debate and victimisation
13. The report rightly considers
the focus on the headscarf and dramatic situations involving Muslim
women as “narrow and simplistic”. There is a need to move beyond
the headscarf debate, as it veils the most important challenges
and underlying issues such as necessary social and political transformations,
unemployment, social exclusion, racism, discrimination, gender-based
violence, inter-generational conflicts, and lack of equal opportunities.
It is necessary to understand and appreciate the complexity of Europe’s
female Muslim population and its contribution to and involvement
with European society.
14. The rapporteur also agrees with the argument that, until now,
the political debate on Europe’s Muslim women focused only on their
status as “passive” and “oppressed” victims. It is important to
move away from the dual victim image representing Muslim women as
victims of patriarchal norms and family structures in their communities
on the one hand, and of prejudices and discrimination coming from
the non-Muslim population in contemporary European societies on
the other. Europe’s Muslim women are in fact facing multiple challenges and
have to claim their rights as women, as individuals, as Muslims
and as members of society at the same time.
4. The empowerment of Europe’s Muslim women of migrant background
15. The rapporteur welcomes the
innovative perspective taken by the rapporteur of the Committee
on Equality and Non-Discrimination who looks at the issue of empowerment
of Europe’s Muslim women, highlighting their efforts to achieve
gender equality and equal opportunities in European societies. The rapporteur
strongly supports the argument that Council of Europe member States
need to take a range of positive measures in order to create the
conditions and support the process of empowerment and the integration
of Muslim women with a migrant background.
16. As integration should be considered a two-way process, the
active participation of Muslim women is a necessary condition for
successful empowerment. In an earlier opinion, the committee underlined
the need to highlight the positive contribution that migrant women
can make in the integration process. As primary care providers,
they also play an important role in the integration of their children.
17. In order to promote equal rights and fair chances for Europe’s
Muslim women, Council of Europe member States should take further
political measures to promote and implement equality between women
and men in all areas of life. Such policies need to extend and consolidate
migrant women’s rights by altering the traditional stereotypes on
the role of women and should empower women in their communities
by enabling them to fully exercise their political and socio-economic
rights.
18. One of the key factors for the empowerment and integration
of Europe’s Muslim women is fair and non-discriminatory access to
education and employment. Learning the language of the country of
residence is a necessary condition not only for access to the labour
market, education, qualifications and vocational training, but also
for building up social ties and bonds within the host society. Through
greater diversity in employment of Muslim women with a migrant background,
one could overcome certain gender divisions that are reinforced by
the fact that they heavily dominate certain sectors of employment.
In this context, new projects should be initiated to promote the
learning of languages of the host countries of Muslim women.
19. The integration process of Europe’s Muslim women of migrant
background should in time lead to democratic participation through
non-discriminatory access to citizenship and political rights. Access
to nationality and dual nationality should be encouraged and supported,
and applicants should enjoy protection from excessively strict conditions,
discretionary decisions, withdrawal of residency or other status
and statelessness. Regarding the democratic participation of migrants
in general and of Muslim women in particular, basic political liberties
and the right to vote in and stand for elections need to be extended.
This applies to Muslim women at local, regional, national and European
level and the constitution of consultative bodies.
20. Moreover, it is necessary to convey a more truthful picture
of migrants in general and Muslim women in particular and provide
for a deeper understanding of Islam in European society. Media can
play an important role in changing this image and building bridges.
Together with political leaders, they have a responsibility to refrain
from stereotyping Muslim women and issues affecting them.
5. The obstacles to empowerment and integration
21. There are nevertheless still
many obstacles to empowerment and integration of Europe’s Muslim
women of migrant background. These challenges often prevent them
from finding the right balance between their desire to preserve
their Islamic and migrant identity and their desire to integrate
in their respective societies. By tackling these obstacles, Council
of Europe member States can contribute to making these women less vulnerable
and less dependent on men and male traditions.
22. The report highlights that large numbers of Europe’s Muslim
women are experiencing multiple discrimination based on ethnic origin,
race, religion, gender, traditions and their background. Council
of Europe member States need to take specific measures to address
this multiple discrimination of Muslim women of migrant background
in all aspects of society and everyday life. The rapporteur underlines
that misunderstandings and discrimination are also a result of restrictive
immigration policies and legislation.
23. All actors in society, including politicians and the media,
need to participate in combating racism, Islamophobia and discrimination
based on religion. Migrants in general and Europe’s Muslim women
in particular are victims of racism, verbal and physical attacks
and stigmatisation on a daily basis, at school, at work and in the
streets. These incidents can create obstacles for the empowerment
of Muslim women, who feel inhibited and insecure. In this respect,
Council of Europe member States must oppose all forms of discrimination
or violence on grounds of religion or belief, as pointed out in Resolution 1846 (2011).
24. Of particular concern is the issue of violence against Muslim
women, including physical, sexual and psychological forms of violence
in the host country because of their religious beliefs and cultural
and social behaviour. These women need to have access to protection
and rehabilitation.
25. In Resolution 1765
(2010), the Assembly underlined the need to appropriately take
into account gender-based violence and gender-related persecution
in any asylum determination process and to ensure gender sensitivity
of the asylum system.
26. In addition, socio-economic disadvantages needs to be further
reduced. Low education and qualifications, low employment rates
and little prospect for social mobility remain a problem. Improving
this situation may be difficult when disadvantageous socio-economic
conditions combine with other factors, such as the lack of knowledge
of the language, the persistence of archaic cultural traditions,
generation conflicts, and discrimination or suspicion on the part
of the non-Muslim majority population.
27. Another obstacle is the marginalisation and social exclusion
of Europe’s Muslim women of migrant background. In the past, the
migration process of Muslim women of the first and second generation
joining their husbands produced a situation of isolation and dependency.
Political choices of European countries have exacerbated this segregation.
Muslim women with large families are particularly vulnerable to
isolation.
28. Finally, no successful transformation is likely to happen
until Muslim men are involved in the process of empowerment of Muslim
women. The Assembly already pointed out in its Resolution 1641 (2008) that the involvement of men is a prerequisite for achieving
equality between the sexes.