1. Introduction
1. Today’s media environment is
a multi-media ecosystem: the institutional media remain central
players, but strategic communicators, whether political, religious
or commercial, are also active and effective in this ecosystem,
and digital communication is becoming increasingly prominent. In
this complex context, it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish
accurate and reliable information from fabricated and deliberately misleading
information.
2. New media technology and services have disrupted the traditional
media structures and have opened up the public sphere, but they
have also brought challenges, such as an increasing lack of distinction
between editorial and advertising content; online safety and security;
data protection / exploitation; the digital divide and the disadvantages
linked to digital exclusion; and the rapid dissemination of disinformation
and hate speech.
3. Media literacy is often identified as a way of countering
these challenges; it is regarded as being almost as important as
the ability to read and write, and that is reflected in the national
curricula of some countries. However, media literacy is an evolving
process that needs constant updating. It is a life-long learning
journey that stretches beyond formal education. Media literacy should
not only concern children or youth: there are many other groups
in society that need extra-resources and extra-training in media
literacy, in order for them to participate effectively in the digital
public sphere, e.g. the elderly and people with physical or cognitive disabilities.
4. Traditionally, the responsibility for media education fell
mainly to the education sector and to a lesser extent to the media
sector. Many public service media have been active in media education
since the very beginning. However, in recent years, the range of
actors involved in media education has been growing and today it
reflects the broad range of sectors linked to media literacy. The
promotion of media literacy is not a task that the education system
and teachers or the media themselves could perform alone: it is
important to involve other relevant actors who can play an important
role, for instance, media regulatory authorities and social media.
For example, media regulators have recognised the importance of
media literacy as a complementary mechanism to media regulation.
Campaigns are another channel for media education. With the growing
power and dominance of social media and search engines in the multi-media
ecosystems, it is very important that they step up to their responsibilities,
notably by providing more structured support to the promotion of
media literacy.
5. References to media literacy have been slipped into many policy
documents at European and national levels. Less common, however,
are firm commitments to promote and operationalise media literacy,
and that is one of the key challenges. Thankfully, this situation
is changing, partly due to the impetus provided by some Recommendations
adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe.
These texts recognise the importance for individuals to develop
the cognitive, technical and social skills and capacities that enable
them to effectively access and critically analyse media content,
and they call on States to develop a co-ordinated national media
literacy policy and ensure its operationalisation and implementation
through annual or multiyear action plans, providing adequate resources
for these purposes.
6. The main difficulty when examining this issue is the absence
of comprehensive data sets and overviews of ground activities in
European States to promote media education. The existing information
is limited to particular sectors. The European Platform of Regulatory
Authorities has developed guidelines on how to set up media literacy
networks at national level, and certain national authorities have
taken initiatives in this connection. Some public service media
and community media develop training for their members and target-audiences.
While initiatives burgeon, a selection of best practices – on how
educational curricula are designed and implemented, how focused
courses and cross-curricular approaches are organised and how resources
are made available for teachers and educational policy-makers –
is still missing. In the present report, I will highlight the main
challenges in the area of media education and refer to a number
of best practices which could serve as a source of inspiration.
7. This report opens with a snap-shot of recent regulatory and
policy developments in respect of media literacy and education at
the Council of Europe and the European Union. These developments
are likely to set the tone for the ongoing and future development
of State policies in relation to media literacy and education, which
is the next focus of the report. Such policies should target all
groups in society, with appropriate differentiation to take their
specific needs and circumstances into account. Journalists – and
other media actors – are influential makers and shapers of public
debate. They face new challenges and ethical choices in the digital
age and the training they receive – in journalism education centres
and as ongoing professional training – should reflect the dynamics
and complexities of the online environment. The training of journalists
and other media actors, especially training on ethical issues, is
the next focus of the report. Brief attention is then paid to the
role of social media and search engines, given that they are increasingly
important players in the multi-media ecosystem.
8. As for the terminology in the field, there is considerable
diversity: media education, media literacy, (critical) information
literacy, digital literacy, news literacy, search engine literacy,
etc. are all conceptually congruent.
However,
it is important not to be distracted by the diversity in terminology
and to focus instead on the congruence of relevant goals and processes.
Some authors suggest that media literacy suffices as a generic term
as it offers a more “holistic” perspective.
Other experts propose to make a distinction
between “education” and “literacy”, depending on specific contexts.
According to them, media literacy means the skills, the knowledge
and the confidence to make informed choices about all the content
and information that we come into contact with – all competences
enabling an individual to critically understand and evaluate media content,
comprehend how media production, editorial and funding processes
work, how data is used and how algorithms and artificial intelligence
can influence media choices. Being media literate also means being
able to responsibly and safely use and engage with others in the
public sphere and fulfil the creative and participatory potential
that new technologies and services can offer. As for media education,
the notion should refer rather to the process by which people (of
all ages) develop media literacy skills. The notion of media literacy
is often used in conjunction with the notion of information, so
the expression media and information literacy (MIL) can be encountered
quite frequently in specialised literature.
2. European law and policy framework:
selected recent developments
2.1. Council
of Europe
9. The Committee of Ministers
of the Council of Europe has raised its level of engagement with
the promotion of media literacy and education in two Recommendations
adopted in 2018. Its
Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)1 to member States on media pluralism and transparency
of media ownership and its
Recommendation
CM/Rec(2018)7 to member States on Guidelines to respect, protect and
fulfil the rights of the child in the digital environment address
media literacy and education/digital literacy in explicit, detailed ways.
10. The Committee of Ministers recognises that: “In light of the
increased range of media and content, it is very important for individuals
to develop the cognitive, technical and social skills and capacities
that enable them to effectively access and critically analyse media
content; to make informed decisions about which media they use and
how to use them; to understand the ethical implications of media
and new technologies, and to communicate effectively, including
by creating content.”
11. A key Guideline in the context of the present report is: “States
should also develop a co-ordinated national media literacy policy
and ensure its operationalisation and implementation through annual
or multiyear action plans and by providing adequate resources for
these purposes. A key strategy could be to support the creation
of a co-ordinated national media literacy network comprising a wide
range of stakeholders, or the further development of such a network
where it already exists. Positive practices developed within national networks
should be actively exchanged and promoted in relevant international
forums.”
12. Importantly, the Committee of Ministers states: “In the multimedia
ecosystem, media literacy is essential for people of all ages and
all walks of life. Measures promoting media literacy should thus
help to develop the teaching of media literacy in school curricula
at all levels and as part of lifelong learning cycles, including
by providing suitable training for teachers and adequate resources
for educational institutions to develop teaching programmes and
project-oriented learning schemes.”
Nevertheless,
media or digital literacy are particularly important for children.
13. The Committee of Ministers also realises that support measures,
including of a financial nature, are necessary to develop and sustain
initiatives that promote media literacy and journalism education.
In Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)1, the Committee of Ministers encourages
member States “to support projects relating to journalism education”
(paragraph 2.13). In its
Declaration
on the financial sustainability of quality journalism in the digital
age of 13 February 2019, the Committee of Ministers encourages member States
to take media and journalism development measures with different
financing models, including private-public partnerships, which are
aimed at, inter alia, “developing journalistic skills and training
and media literacy programmes for newsrooms” (page 5, point c.)
(v)).
2.2. European
Union
14. As for the European Union,
it is useful to flag a recent European-level development concerning
media literacy. The goal of promoting and operationalising media
literacy received a recent boost when the relevant provision in
the European Union’s Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD)
was revised and strengthened. Until now, the importance of media
literacy was explained in the Preamble to the Directive, but the
only provision in the substantive part of the Directive dealing
with media literacy (Article 33) did not require member States to
take any action to promote media literacy. It only required them
to report periodically on the application of the Directive, taking
into account the levels of media literacy in their national systems.
15. The formal process to revise the Directive provided an opportunity
to address this blind spot. New Article 33a(1) requires EU member
States to “promote and take measures for the development of media
literacy skills”. The explanation of what media literacy entails
and why it is important has also been revised in Recital 59 of the
Preamble to the Directive.
16. Another interesting addition to the revised AVMSD concerns
the obligations of video-sharing platforms. Insofar as such platforms
now fall under the scope of the Directive, they must take measures
which consist of (“as appropriate”), inter
alia, “providing for effective media literacy measures
and tools and raising users’ awareness of those measures and tools”
(Article 28b(3)(j)).
17. The European Regulators Group for Audiovisual Media Services
(ERGA) will have the task “to exchange experience and best practices
on the application of the regulatory framework for audiovisual media
services, including on accessibility and media literacy” (Article
30b(3)(b)).
19. The above developments, both at the Council of Europe and
at the European Union, are indicative of growing awareness in European
law- and policy-making circles that media literacy – however termed
or defined – needs to be operationalised and rendered meaningful
for all sections of society. Recent regulatory and policy developments
favour collaborative, multi-actor and multi-sector approaches.
3. States’
policies on media education of the public
20. With the increasing development
and use of digital technologies in the media environment, there
is a pressing need to create and sustain critical-thinking skills
for analysing online news content. Citizens who are media literate
can ascertain the reliability of news content and sort fact from
opinion in order to make more informed choices about their news
consumption. Media literacy does not solely refer to news content
in the form of texts, but also includes educating people on online
persuasion tools and the powerful and potentially manipulative powers
of (moving) images.
21. National media literacy policies, which connect relevant players
and stakeholders and facilitate and promote collaborative and individual
initiatives, can be very important for the operationalisation of
media literacy. Likewise, it is very important to recognise that
a multi-actor approach is called for, with different actors (i.e.,
State bodies, the media, educators, civil society, individuals,
internet service providers, etc.) playing different roles.
22. First, it should be stressed that media education is a lifelong
activity and that it rightfully has a place in all levels of formal
education, but also as a part of ongoing education. The context
in which it is provided (for instance, schools or targeted trainings
for the elderly, persons with disabilities, or other specific groups
with specific needs) influences its aims and methods. Policies should
reflect and embrace this differentiation. There is no “one-size-fits-all”
model for media education. Secondly, as already mentioned in the
introduction, the term “media education” is an umbrella term. Thirdly,
States’ policies should be wide and varied, and certainly not limited
to legislative initiatives (which may not even be necessary). Fourthly,
States’ policies should not be limited to the educational sector,
but take a cross-sectoral, multi-actor approach. Key groups of actors
will be identified, with relevant further specification of sub-groups
and their particular roles. Among the key groups of actors in this
connection are the (audiovisual) media, and more specifically public
service media, which are vested with particular tasks in society.
23. It is difficult to find comprehensive, up-to-date information
about Council of Europe member States’ policies on the promotion
of media literacy. Available data sometimes focuses on the promotion
of media literacy in specific contexts or sectors, such as education
or audiovisual media. Sometimes the specific focuses of data collected
in different States are not sufficiently similar to facilitate straightforward
cross-country comparisons. And sometimes the data has not been collected
in a systematic fashion or been organised and made available in
accessible overviews.
24. Bearing in mind these difficulties in gathering and analysing
data about media literacy policies at the national level, it is
useful to point to a selection of (recent) studies that help to
map national media literacy policies across the Council of Europe
area.
25. A major contribution to the pan-European reporting and mapping
endeavour was the comparative study conducted under ANR TRANSLIT
and COST “Transforming Audiences/Transforming Societies” by a team
of national experts, led by Prof. Divina Frau-Meigs.
The study included focuses on
the definition of media and information literacy in the digital
environment and public policies for the implementation of media
and information literacy goals. It also gave pride of place to the
school system and its resources and training to implement media
and information literacy and actors and initiatives outside the
school system. Although data in such a dynamic field dates quickly,
this study remains an important reference point for overviews, analysis and
evaluation of comparative country-specific
educational
approaches to media and information literacy.
26. The dimensions explored by the study are: definition, policy
framework, capacity-building (training), capacity-building (resources),
funding, other actors, and evaluation.
Among
the study’s main findings were: (1) there is a “digital undertow”
that affects the definition of media and information literacy; (2)
a disconnect effect shows weaknesses in the policy framework dimensions
of funding and evaluation; and (3) a “trompe l’oeil effect” reveals
the compensating efforts produced by other actors to ensure effective
implementation of media and information literacy.
27. The first finding reflects the observation made in the introduction
to the present report that there is terminological diversity when
it comes to media education and literacy. The “digital undertow”
refers to the emergence of terms such as computer and digital literacy,
with the latter being very much in the ascendant.
These are not just new labels, they can also
affect how media literacy is understood, conceptualised and taught and
promoted. As also noted in the introduction to the present report,
media literacy comprises a range of skills – cognitive, technical,
and social/civic. When media literacy is taught, there may be more
emphasis on digital/technical skills (e.g. under the banner of computer
or digital literacy) or on civic skills (e.g. as part of media studies
or civic education). Emphases vary. The main concepts and values
have been identified and grouped in the study as:
- integration of film, visual,
cultural and art studies into media education;
- information processing and management skills to enhance
employability;
- promotion of civic and political participation and (e-)democracy;
- media ethics and consumer protection;
- technical and production skills.
28. All of this variety has prompted experts like Divina Frau-Meigs
to underline the importance of different and complementary skill
sets, styling them as multiple literacies or “transliteracies”.
Based on their data and analysis thereof,
the authors of the study have observed a level of stability at the
level of training, next to a growing emphasis on, and expansion
of, resources.
29. In most European countries (two-thirds of those surveyed in
the study by Ms Frau-Meigs et al.), media literacy is taught as
a transversal subject as opposed to a stand-alone subject in the
curriculum.
Such a cross-cutting approach has benefits
for integration in curricula, but it also poses methodological difficulties when
it comes to impact-assessment as it can prove difficult to ring-fence
specific media literacy efforts. This taps into one of the major
challenges facing the further development of media education and
literacy, according to the authors of the study, i.e., the evaluation
of how effective media education and literacy initiatives are in practice
(and determining why they are (not) effective). Funding is very
“heterogeneous”, there is a complex interplay between different
types of funding, including in the different sectors where media
education is promoted. Moreover, there is a lack of transparency
about funding and the challenge of making sense of the data that
is available is compounded by the diversity of that data. Funding
which targets general objectives can have implicit or indirect benefits
for media education and literacy initiatives, but any causality
may prove difficult to document in concrete ways.
30. Finally, in relation to the study, four problems related to
funding that are shared by all countries are described as:
- sustainability;
- co-ordination of media and information literacy (MIL)
initiatives;
- sharing existing programmes and products produced in these
programmes;
- financial support of innovative products supporting the
area of MIL.
31. National law and policy frameworks, as well as their institutional
architecture, determine how media literacy is conceptualised, organised
and operationalised. Some recent and current media literacy initiatives specifically
target online disinformation. Examples include:
- In Finland, the National Audiovisual
Institute (under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and Culture)
is tasked with promoting “media education, children’s media skills
and the development of safe media environment for children in co-operation
with other authorities and corporations in the sector”.
- In the Netherlands, the Ministry of Education, Culture
and Science has facilitated the growth of a dynamic Mediawijzer network bringing together
an extensive range of stakeholders, i.e., over 1,000 organisations
and individuals who are actively working on media literacy policies,
issues and activities. Law, policy and institutional frameworks
can facilitate the development of specific initiatives.
- In Ireland, Webwise is
the Irish Internet Safety Awareness Centre. Co-funded by the Department
of Education and Skills and the European Union, it “promotes the
autonomous, effective, and safer use of the internet by young people
through a sustained information and awareness strategy targeting
parents, teachers, and children themselves with consistent and relevant
messages”.
- In Belgium, the Flemish media literacy centre, Mediawijs, focused on educating
people about how to engage more critically with “fake news” in 2017. Moreover, every year the media education
project, “news in the class”, is organised. It is a collaboration
between Mediawijs, Vlaamse Nieuwsmedia,
Press and Media,
with support from the Flemish government. This project aims to stimulate students
to consult and interpret news sources in a critical way. Consequently,
it provides teachers with educational packages, which recently also
included one on the countering of “fake news”. Through such packages, students
are challenged and learn how to discern false and misleading news
and, through such means, they have been exposed to the “filter bubble”
phenomenon. Similar initiatives have been launched
in Wallonia by the Superior Council for Media Education, such as
the “two weeks of media education”, the main topic of which in 2017
was “fake news”. On 18 October 2017, the Council
also organised the “day of media education”, which started with
a debate around “fake news”. On
31 January 2018, Sven Gatz, the Flemish Minister for Culture, announced
that he would organise a “burgerkabinet”
(citizen cabinet) focusing on “fake news”. This project aims to engage with
citizens on how they inform themselves today and on what could be
done better. It
was possible to share ideas through an online platform until 7 April
2018. Afterwards, a “real” discussion platform
was organised in the Flemish parliament with the purpose of issuing
policy recommendations.
3.1. Media
education and the media sector
3.1.1. Audiovisual
sector in general
32. The European Audiovisual Observatory
has a long-standing interest in media literacy in the audiovisual sector.
In 2016, it published an extensive report on the topic.
The
report maps and describes “the most significant projects in the
promotion of media literacy” with national or regional coverage
in the 28 EU member States since January 2010.
The
547 featured projects, selected by national experts, provide a wealth
of examples of how to bring media literacy to life, primarily in
the audiovisual sector. More specifically, the report focused “on
media literacy projects relating to media services delivered on
electronic communication networks, both linear and non-linear, and
on information society services where pertinent”.
The
projects were arranged in seven categories: resources; end-user
engagement; research; networking platforms; provision of funding; campaigns,
and policy development.
The projects were also categorised in
terms of the media literacy skills they prioritise: creativity;
critical thinking; intercultural dialogue; media use, and participation
and interaction.
The different sectors involved in the
featured projects were also categorised: academia, audiovisual content provider,
public authorities, media regulatory authorities, online platforms,
civil society, cross-sector collaboration and “other”.
33. The European Platform of Regulatory Authorities (EPRA) has
also shown long-standing interest in, and commitment to, the promotion
of media literacy in the audiovisual sector. It is particularly
concerned with the role that national regulatory authorities can
play. The nature of their role is shaped in part by whether or not they
have a statutory duty to promote media literacy and whether or not
they have ear-marked funding to take relevant initiatives. Over
the years, experiences and (best) practices have been shared in
the context of Working Groups. EPRA’s 2017 Comparative Background
Paper is a very useful source of comparative information.
In May 2018, the EPRA Task Force
for Media Literacy adopted Guidelines on how to establish Media
Literacy Networks. This is a check-list for national regulatory
authorities planning to establish media literacy networks in their
own countries. The Irish Media Literacy Network, set up by the Broadcasting
Authority of Ireland as part of its broader activities in the area
of media literacy, provides a model that is already up and running.
3.1.2. Public
service media (PSM)
34. Several years ago, the European
Broadcasting Union (EBU), an umbrella organisation representing
the interests of public service broadcasters and media in Europe,
organised its Principles on Media Literacy along three main axes:
“Bridging the digital divide”, “Inform and empower citizens to democracy
[sic]”, and “Creating a trusted space”.
It show-cased best practices by
its members, grouped along the lines of those three axes. At time
of writing, the very useful show-case did not appear to have been
updated. However, the EBU’s News Report 2018,
50
ways to make it better, sets out extensive examples of
how to build audience engagement and trust in public service journalism,
many of which involve media literacy and education initiatives.
The EBU has also been developing
resources specifically for, and a show-case of, its members’ approaches
to “fake news” and online disinformation. An overview is available
in its Perfect Storm publication
and
an overview of the fact-checking initiatives developed or supported
by its members in the Annex to its
Position
Paper: “Fake news” and the information disorder.
35. In the framework of the Eurovision News Exchange, the EBU
developed a project for the young, the Eurovision Youth News Exchange
– a multi-lateral exchange of items for children's news programmes
and magazines. These daily or weekly programmes cover current events
affairs from the children’s perspective, in an accessible language
that children can understand. The objective of the programme is
to clarify the context of world events, and to give children the
tools to understand the news that they are exposed to through the media.
Moreover, in its Digital Media Days Conference in 2018, the EBU
organised a panel, “Media literacy: ambitious approaches by EBU
Members to enlighten the public with critical thinking skills around
social media content and misinformation”.
The Panel highlighted a number of
initiatives by its members, for instance the BBC’s endeavours to
offer push-back against “fake news”.
3.1.2.1. The
BBC (United Kingdom)
36. The BBC has been working with
young people in the area of media and news literacy for around 15 years.
It fits in with company’s core purposes: to inform, educate and
entertain. BBC Charter states that the company should “provide specialist
educational content to help support learning for children and teenagers across
the United Kingdom.” In concrete terms, the journalists share their
knowledge and skills (to spot disinformation and misinformation,
checking sources, knowing the difference between opinion and facts, learning
basic skills about filming and story-telling) to enable the young
to act as both consumer and creator of content in the digital space.
This approach is all the more commendable taking into account the
facts: in 2018, the Commission on Fake News and Teaching of Critical
Literacy Skills run by an All-Party Parliamentary Group and the
National Literacy Trust released a report which states that only
2% of children have the critical literacy skills they need to tell
if a news story is real or fake and two-thirds of children now trust
the news less as a result of disinformation.
37. There are several areas in which the BBC delivers media literacy
to young people via projects such as
BBC
Young Reporter, BBC Own,BBC
Bitesize, BBC Teach,Beyond
Fake News, and each of them has slightly different audiences
and objectives. The main United Kingdom media literacy project is
the
BBC Young Reporter, which
aims to involve young people, aged between 11 and 18 years in the
media/reporting, by giving them a voice on BBC platforms, sharing
their stories with programme teams and helping them to make and broadcast
them via an annual BBC Young Reporter Competition. Participating
schools, colleges, youth groups and charities benefit from events,
trainings, access to resources and mentorship by BBC journalists.
The company offers free online resources which can be used by teachers
or individual students. The collection of resources includes focuses
on: how to spot a bot, knowing who to trust, recognising fake news,
checking the story, numbers and the tricks they play. The Collection
also includes guidance for teachers, a series of lessons/lesson
plans and an evidence toolkit.
In 2017, the company launched a package
of new resources around real news specifically aimed at helping
young people spot false information. Regarding disinformation, the company
also developed an online game which young people can play on laptops
or mobile devices.
3.1.2.2. RTBF
(Public service broadcaster of the French community of Belgium)
38. While novel programme formats
can speak to the collective imagination, structured models for promoting media
education and literacy throughout a (public service) media organisation
can also be suitable for replication. When the necessary financial
and editorial investments are made to integrate media education throughout
an organisation, it can yield sustainable benefits. RTBF, the Francophone
public service broadcaster in Belgium, has developed a policy to
integrate media education transversally – across its editorial themes
– and vertically in all types of media output. This approach of
committing to a culture of media education is a strategy that gives
context and direction to the development of individual programmes
and services in the longer term.
39. RTBF has drawn up a media education plan every year since
2014, with two main objectives: firstly, to develop with the audience
(notably the young) critical thinking and, secondly, to help individuals
to communicate and interact in the new media environment. The company
broadcast on radio and television and also online. There are programmes
about decoding the media, developing critical thinking, professional
ethics and the conditions for making news and information more reliable
and thereby consolidating public trust. RTBF also organises guided
visits and interactive workshops: every year, over 10 000 people
come to meet journalists and take part in workshops with a view
to better understanding news and information gathering and distribution
processes. The staff attend regular training courses, including
in co-operation with other partners such as the Media Education
Council, the Association of Professional Journalists and the City
of Brussels (regarding teacher training).
3.1.2.3. Some
other European PSM
40. Another noteworthy trend is
to develop programme formats that appeal to and engage their specific target
audiences, especially youth. The Dutch public service broadcaster’s
Jeugdjournaal is very highly regarded.
It provides high-quality reporting by its staff journalists but
adapted for the needs and interests of children. The daily broadcast
is supplemented by an online presence that has many interactive
opportunities and resources that provide extra background and depth
to the stories it covers.
Other broadcasters have also developed
online formats that provide news to younger audience in a style
and tone that are closer to them, such as the Swiss French-language
channel, SSR, which came up with an online video news service suitable for
use on mobile devices.
In Germany,
ARD-Aktuell has developed
Novi, a newsbot that offers “passive” young
audiences “bite-sized” news items via Facebook Messenger twice a
day. Key to the format is: “Followers get a message with the main
headlines, after which they have the option to ‘talk back’ and receive
additional information. The follow-up questions are predesigned
for the users, with a few multiple-choice options”.
L’instant détox,
an initiative by France-Info, styles itself as “Taking the Fight
Against Fake News on to the Street”, includes live Facebook sessions
engaging against disinformation, as well as a YouTube channel.
News Class is an educational project
run by the Finnish public service broadcaster, YLE. It involves students
working to create news content with YLE mentor journalists.
3.1.2.4. Community
media and commercial media
41. Besides public service media,
community media also play a very important role in promoting media education
and literacy, with training being one of their defining characteristics
and goals. Other types of media, such as commercial print media,
can also contribute to the development of media education and literacy.
Their commercial character does not negate their contribution –
as mentioned above, the media education environment is necessarily
multi-dimensional, involving a diverse range of actors. One example
that has been identified as interesting is Play Bac Presse, a company
originally set up in France, which produces newspapers directed
at a youthful audience and different age groups within its target
audience.
3.2. Media
education and (non-)media actors
42. Various public bodies and institutions
offering public services, as well as civil society organisations promote
media education and literacy in different ways on an ongoing basis.
Recently and currently, some initiatives from different sectors
have been focused specifically on, and have sought to counter, the
harmful effects of (online) disinformation. Examples include:
- Libraries and the promotion
of critical thinking: the International Federation of Library Associations
and Institutions (IFLA) has been playing an important role in countering
“fake news”, by promoting critical thinking. More specifically,
the organisation has developed an infographic setting out eight
simple steps on “How to Spot Fake News”. The steps have been derived from
a 2016 article by FactCheck.org. The steps are: consider the source,
check the author, check the date, check your biases, read beyond, supporting
sources? is it a joke? and ask the experts.
- Cross-media initiatives: By pooling together resources,
collaborating media can achieve more collectively than would be
possible by several separate initiatives. Faktisk is
a Norwegian ‘fact-checking’ website, launched in July 2017 by four
of Norway’s leading news organisations: the newspapers, Dagbladet and VG,
commercial broadcaster TV2 and the public service broadcaster, NRK.
It is a non-profit organisation but receives more than 50 percent
of its annual budget from its partners. The fact-check is displayed
by means of a five-point, colour-coded scale ranging from absolutely
true to absolutely false. Once fact-checked, the fact checks can
be embedded by everyone in their own work. Faktisk has
proven to be a big success.
- Fact-checking initiatives: Fact-checking measures consist
in checking the accuracy of online content that is presented as
truth or fact in order to debunk disinformation. This can either
be done internally by technology companies, by independent external
fact-checking organisations, or through collaborations between them
and/or other actors. Different actors, such as online platforms,
news media publishers and broadcasters, and news consumers all have
had recourse to such practice. The International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN) launched
its Code of Principles on 15 September 2016 and it currently counts 67
verified signatories from around the world. The signatories are organisations
that regularly publish non-partisan reports on the accuracy of statements
by public figures, major institutions, and other widely circulated
claims of interest to society. The Code comprises five principles
that have to be adhered to and respected by all signatories when
conducting their journalistic work. These principles entail the following
commitments: non-partisanship and fairness; transparency of sources;
transparency of funding and organisation; transparency of methodology;
open and honest corrections policy. The aim of this Code is to promote
excellence in fact-checking. In order to become a signatory, an
extensive accreditation process has to be followed which involves
external assessors having to assess the applicant’s respect of the
Code of Principles based on a checklist. Fact-checking can have additional value
for media literacy and broader educational purposes when routine
fact-checking is accompanied or enhanced by the creation of resources,
such as video tutorials or clips explaining how to verify the authenticity
of photos or audiovisual material.
- Newspapers in classrooms: The most obvious model to highlight
is the newspapers in classrooms model which has been in operation
for decades in some countries. The model is based on a range of newspapers
being made available to students in the classroom, free of charge
by news publishers. Supporting teaching resources are often supplied
to the teachers to help generate discussion and learning in the
classroom. In Finland, the Finnish newspaper industry has been co-operating
with schools for more than 50 years in this way. In the French-speaking
part of Belgium, French media publishers and the Fédération Wallonie Bruxelles deliver
the “Ouvrir mon quotidien”
project which provides a range of newspapers to all schools every
day. In Denmark, the Association of Danish Media is responsible
for delivering Newspapers in Education, and includes a competition
involving making a printed paper or a digital news site and the
teachers must train in and teach the basics of journalism with the
students. In Ireland, Press Pass (www.presspass.ie) is a News Literacy and Student Journalism programme
for secondary school students aged 15-16. Developed by NewsBrands Ireland, the representative
body for Ireland’s 17 national news publishers, with the support
of the Department of Education. The free resources include copies
of national and local newspapers, news websites, a student workbook,
and a Teacher’s Lesson Plan.
- Workshops and freely accessible resources: workshops can
be delivered as part of the curriculum or as a voluntary extra-curricular
activity within a school or learning environment. For instance,
Lie Detectors is a civil society-led programme delivered in Germany
and Belgium, which brings working journalists into schools in order
to give young people insights into the work of quality journalists
and to de-construct and de-bunk fake news. The journalists who are
trained to deliver Lie Detectors workshops in schools are all trained,
qualified, paid professionals who share details of their working
lives. This helps the students to appreciate what goes in to quality
journalism and may even inspire some of them to become journalists. The
project is funded by The Wyss Foundation in the USA.
- Collaborative model: A new UK-based programme Newswise is a collaboration between
The Guardian Foundation, The National Literacy Trust and PSHE Association,
and is funded by Google (see also under section 5). Newswise is based on the belief
that education is one of the most important solutions to the spread
of disinformation. It offers free lesson plans and resources for
schools, training sessions for teachers and workshops across the
United Kingdom. Workshop numbers are limited but the lesson plans
and resources are free for every primary school in the United Kingdom
to download. Since April 2018 Newswise has
worked with over 2000 teachers and children and had over 2500 downloads
of their online resources. The European MediaCoach programme
is being developed by a collaboration between civil society organisations
and academic institutions and delivered in Cyprus, Greece, Netherlands,
Romania, Bulgaria, Portugal and Belgium. It is based on the successful
Dutch National MediaCoach programme
which has successfully achieved the goal of improving media literacy
among children, young people and parents by training a large pool
of media literate professionals working with youth in schools, youth
centres and in non-formal contexts like libraries and museums.
- Voluntary extracurricular media education programs: In
Croatia, the Association for Communication and Media Culture built
a voluntary extracurricular media education program in order to
educate teachers, parents and children in media literacy called Djeca Medija. They have produced
850 workshops, lectures and conferences on media education for more
than 19,000 participants, primarily on a voluntary basis and have
been awarded the Evens Foundation Special Jury Prize for Media Education.
- Development of tools and resources for use inside and
outside of classrooms: Les Clés des médias (Keys
for understanding media) is a project that emerged after
the terrorist attacks of 2015 in France. Public authorities and
public service media felt that it was urgent to provide new resources
to help teachers to organise debates in their classes about freedom
of expression. The project was designed to facilitate debate and
learning about media issues in school environment or among a larger
audience. The objective is to illustrate key issues related to media
and news production in order to stimulate debate and to develop
critical thinking.
- In Greece, the “i-create”
platform encourages and supports students' digital and audiovisual
creations. Developed by Educational Radiotelevision and Digital
Media, Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs, this
project has been running since 2011 and facilitates the engagement
of students in collaborative projects. The platform provides professionally
produced content by EduTV and
allows students and teachers to upload their own short videos or
digital content and engage in dialogue, rating, polls, and sharing.
The project is aimed at children aged 4 -18 and their teachers.
4. Training
of journalists and other media actors
43. In this section I will mainly
consider a selection of initiatives by networks of journalism education
and training centres, followed by a selection of initiatives by
other organisations that are developing online training resources
that can be used by a wide community of actors. I will conclude
this section with a few brief observations about education and training
activities at the national level.
44. In the multi-media ecosystem, where so many actors contribute
in different ways to information and communication activities, the
need for training goes beyond “traditional” journalists and stretches
to what the Council of Europe often calls “other media actors”.
While the focus of the present report is on journalists, some of
the examples given may also offer relevant opportunities for training
for other media actors.
45. Given the complex challenges faced by journalists and other
media actors in the multi-media ecosystem, it is important to unpack
the different possible components/focuses of “training”. A 360-degree
approach to training, which includes legal, digital, ethical, verification/fact-checking,
security and other dimensions, is to be favoured. Within such a
holistic approach, I would emphasise trainings on ethical issues.
46. The emphasis on ethical issues is well-placed. From time to
time, incidents of journalistic deception and fabrication are uncovered.
Sometimes such incidents are high-profile, like the recent Claas
Relotius Affair in which fraudulent reporting by an award-winning
journalist for
Der Spiegel was
exposed.
Such incidents, especially high-profile
ones involving reputable media organisations, trigger critical public
scrutiny and journalistic self-scrutiny.
Der
Spiegel responded to the Relotius Affair by examining
and seeking to rectify shortcomings in its own quality assurance
mechanisms and editorial checks and balances.
Training on ethical issues, both
at the level of journalism education and as part of ongoing professional
development, is not a guarantee of eliminating ethical failings
in practice, but it does offer a strong, structural and sustainable strategy
to prevent them in the first place.
47. Conscious of the damage that can be caused by ethical shortcomings
and failings, including the undermining of public trust in journalism
and the media, various organisations are increasingly investing
in ways of (re-)building trust in their journalistic activities.
For instance, the Journalism Trust Initiative (JTI) was launched
in 2018 by Reporters Without Borders,
Agence
France Presse, the European Broadcasting Union and the
Global Editors Network.
The JTI is designed to “promote journalism
by adherence to an agreed set of trust and transparency standards
to be developed and implemented”. The JTI is structured around three work
packages: Identity and Transparency; Accountability and Professionalism,
and Independence and Ethics.
The standards are currently being
developed in collaboration with stake-holders.
48. The European Journalism Training Association (EJTA) currently
has 76 members (journalism centres, schools and universities) in
32 European countries. Its members “work together to improve journalism education
in Europe, enabling members to collaborate on exchanges and teaching
and research projects, and meet regularly to exchange ideas and
information.”
One of its current high-profile projects
is
EUFACTCHECK, which aims to “build a sustainable curriculum unit
on fact-checking within a European network of journalism schools”.
The project will “publish fact-checks and blog posts to test our
common methodology during the European elections”. One of its central
aims or aspirations, as formulated on its website, is: “Through
fact-checking European political claims and trying to tackle misinformation,
we want our students and our public to grow a deeper insight and
interest in democratic processes, both on national and European
level”. One of the EJTA’s previous projects, entitled
Mediahackers, set out “to enhance digital media competencies to journalists
working in all media sectors by providing specialised training courses
for new/cross media skills in Cyprus, Germany, Greece, and Romania”.
A consortium of partners worked with individual journalists, as
well as media and journalists’ associations and unions.
49. The European Journalism Centre (EJC) is a non-profit international
foundation “with the mission to improve and strengthen journalism
and the news media in the interest of a functioning democratic public sphere.”
It has vast experience of providing training and capacity-building
activities, which are given an additional, online dimension in the
resources and materials it creates. For instance,
Learno.net is the EJC’s platform for professional video training
courses. Its present offering deals largely with an array of digital
skills, and it invites suggestions for future courses, which leaves
the door open for training courses on ethical issues. The EJC has
also done a lot of work on verification techniques and hosts an
online
verification
handbook for digital content in emergency news coverage.
50. The Ethical Journalism Network (EJN) is a worldwide alliance
of reporters, editors and publishers who are committed to promoting
accountable journalism.
The EJN’s activities are driven by
the five values it places at the core of ethical journalism: “accuracy;
independence; impartiality; humanity; and accountability”.
It “produces resources for working
journalists, media trainers and journalism students focusing on
how to improve media ethics and ethical communications in the public
sphere […], including
in-depth reports,
infographics
on hate speech and migration coverage,
videos on a wide range of ethical issues, as well as […]
podcasts and
presentations”.
Its Five Point Test for Hate Speech
and Five Point Guide for Migration Reporting are presented in clear
and succinct language and their infographic format is visually appealing.
They have been extensively translated
and are widely used as practical tools in trainings and in news
rooms. The EJN, in collaboration with the Thomson Foundation, has
created an online course in journalism ethics, the Ethical Journalist’s
Toolkit.
The
EJN provides trainings for media professionals and for trainers.
51. The Global Editors Network (GEN), the European Federation
of Journalists (EFJ), Publishers’ Association of Portugal (APImpressa)
and Forum Journalismus und Medien Wien (FJUM) are conducting a project
to develop the European Media Literacy Toolkit for Newsrooms around
Europe. The partners have invited “publishers, editors, and influencers
journalists from five European countries to a series of unconferences
and a region-wide hackathon with the aim of collaboratively producing
a digital European Media Literacy Toolkit offered to all European
newsrooms in order to combat misinformation and amplify quality content
to the wider public.”
52. While the availability of an array of online resources, often
free of charge, is very welcome, it is difficult to gauge how, and
to what extent, they are used in concrete educational and training
programmes at the national level in different countries.
53. It is very difficult to have a clear, accurate, detailed and
up-to-date overview of journalism education and training programmes
at the national level. Relevant information can be pieced together
from different sources and resources,
but not in a reliably systematic,
comprehensive and timely way.
54. At the national level, journalism education is typically organised
by journalism schools or as specialised programmes offered by universities.
It is essential that the academic and/or professional autonomy of journalism
education is effectively guaranteed at all times. The role and involvement
of the State should therefore not go beyond ensuring that adequate
funding is available for journalism education and that available funding
is distributed equitably, so that journalism schools and university
programmes can develop and carry out their own curricula without
political or other forms of interference. Ideally, training should
be financed through an independent funding mechanism. As for the
evaluation of the results of the media education, there are many
actors involved and for each sector of activity there should be
a specific matrix of measurement. While responsibility for journalism
education curricula rests with the schools and universities, various intergovernmental
and (international) non-governmental organisations provide relevant
resources, e.g. UNESCO’s Series on Journalism Education, which includes
(compendia of) model curricula and themed resources on topics like,
most recently, journalism and disinformation.
A handbook called “Journalism, fake news
and disinformation” was published in 2018, containing good examples
of how journalists reported on disinformation, how they were incorporating
media literacy techniques into their reporting so that their audience could
better understand how they worked, and by that process build trust.
This handbook was a useful tool in media literacy process.
55. Ongoing professional training, on the other hand, is typically
organised by media organisations themselves (in-house trainings),
or by journalists’ unions or other representative bodies. The selection
of training opportunities offered by the latter is often varied,
reflecting the 360-degree skill sets needed by journalists in the
digital age. The trainings often focus on digital skills (data journalism,
web-design, podcasts, vlogging, etc.) and professional administrative
skills (fiscal issues, insurance, time-management, etc.).
Safety,
for example in the context of reporting from conflict zones, is
another focus. The unions also sometimes co-operate with other partner
organisations in order to further expand and diversify the range
of trainings they offer. It is important to note that trainings
organised by national journalists’ unions are often open to free-lance journalists.
As for newsrooms, they should care about media literacy, because
it is in their interest: a more literate public would more easily
recognise and appreciate quality journalism and would wish to pay
for it. Thus, media literacy could uphold a business model based
on trust, while a business model based on invasive tracking technology
on the web, on sensationalism and clicks could decrease the trust
in journalism.
56. Depending on the focus of the training, public or private
funding may have been secured, but it is common practice in most
countries for participants in the trainings to pay a fee. Union
members are often entitled to a reduced fee, e.g. members of the
Dutch Association of Journalists avail of a discount of 20% – 50%
on trainings organised by the association’s Academy.
57. It seems that there is less demand among journalists for trainings
on ethical issues as part of their ongoing professional development.
The perceived need to upskill for the demands of the digital age
seems stronger. Ethical trainings are often organised around specific
themes and in conjunction with particular organisations. Some examples
from the Dutch Association of Journalists include collaborations
with the Red Cross, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees and the College voor de
Rechten van de Mens (the Dutch national human rights
commission).
58. It is very difficult to conduct an impact assessment of trainings
as they concern skills and ethics that will be applied by participants
in an ongoing way and in very diverse professional settings.
5. The role of social media and search
engines
59. Internet intermediaries exercise
great influence and power arising from their gate-keeping capabilities, especially
when they attain dominant positions in specific parts of the multi-media
ecosystem. This is particularly true of social media service providers
and search engines. In its Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)2 to member
States on the roles and responsibilities of internet intermediaries,
the Committee of Ministers dwells on how internet intermediaries
should respect human rights across all of their operations. At different
stages in the Recommendation, the Committee of Ministers calls for
States and intermediaries to support media and information literacy
strategies.
60. Internet intermediaries have taken some initiatives to support
and/or promote media literacy. Examples include:
61. The bulk of Google’s funding measures for relevant activities
have been conducted under the banner of its Digital News Initiative
and in the European context, its Digital News Innovation Fund. In
2018, Google funded a project called
MediaWise in
order to reduce the spread of misinformation.
Focusing on the next generation,
the initiative aims to teach teenagers how to spot fake news by
developing a new curriculum that will be available to schools across
the United St ates. Google funds as well
NewsWise (see
also under 3.2) – a “free, cross-curricular news literacy project
for 9 to 11-year-olds across the United Kingdom, set up by the Guardian
Foundation, National Literacy Trust and PSHE Association”.
NewsWise seeks to equip children aged
between 9 and 11 years with the skills and knowledge they need to
deal with disinformation. It also seeks to “provide high quality
news literacy education resources, experiences and support for teachers”.
In February
2019, Google issued a white paper,
How
Google Fights Disinformation.
It details the main measures Google
takes against disinformation in Google Search and Google News; YouTube
and Google Advertising Products. It reports that “in March 2018,
Google.org (Google’s philanthropic arm) launched a $10 million global
initiative to support media literacy around the world”.
62. Following the 2016 US Presidential elections, Facebook announced
a number of measures to limit the reach of “fake news”, including
a partnership with fact-checking organisations which have signed
up to the IFCN’s Code of Principles.
This collaboration has suffered
some recent set-backs, with various partners such as leading fact-checking
agencies, Associated Press and Snopes, pulling out.
In order to educate middle-school
and high-school students on how to identify fake news and assess
information, Facebook partnered with the
News Literacy Project, a non-profit education organisation, offering interactive
news literacy lessons through a virtual classroom.
63. Another action is the development of an EU-wide
Code
of Practice on online disinformation, support for an independent network of fact-checkers,
and tools to stimulate quality journalism which was signed by Facebook,
Google, Twitter and Mozilla, as well as the trade association representing
online platforms and trade associations representing the advertising
industry and advertisers. Under this Code, the signatories give
a commitment to partner with civil society, governments, educational
institutions and other stakeholders to support efforts aimed at
improving critical thinking and digital media literacy.
64. Also, Facebook has launched the Digital Literacy Library.
The website offers free interactive lessons and videos, addressing
topics such as privacy, reputation and online security.
65. In 2015, Twitter opened its
Neighbor's
Nest, a community tech learning centre, where it provides technology
access and digital literacy workshops for local residents.
66. In light of present political and societal priorities, various
initiatives by internet intermediaries in this connection tend to
address the specific problem of disinformation, as can be seen in
the few examples above. These examples often involve providing funding
for projects and teaming up with other partners in projects that aim
to promote media literacy. While welcome, these examples are mainly
incidental and represent small sums of money (relative to the turn-over
of those corporations). As long as such initiatives by multinational
tech companies remain their own initiatives and wholly voluntary,
the companies themselves can determine the focuses of the initiatives,
the target applicants, the selection criteria for application processes,
the amounts of financing involved, the terms and conditions governing
the financing, the frequency with which the financing is awarded.
As corporate entities, they have corporate interests which can colour
their initiatives. Thus, initiatives by internet intermediaries
often have added value due to the centrality of intermediaries in
the media ecosystem and due to the financial support often offered
by the initiatives in question, but they should be given a guarded
welcome. They should be seen as complementary to, rather than a
substitute for, structured systems and schemes of non-commercial
funding.
67. In light of the corporate social responsibility of such “tech
giants”, as well as the human rights due diligence that they should
show across all of their activities, much more could be achieved
in this connection. States should lead the line in teasing out the
nature and scope of relevant, structural commitments by multinational
corporations.
6. Conclusions
68. An overarching conclusion of
this report is that there is an ongoing need for constructive multi-actor collaboration
in order to promote media education in the new media environment.
There is growing attention for media literacy across the Council
of Europe 47 member States. The promotion of media literacy, understood as
a range of critical, technical and civic skills needed by everyone
– not only children and young people – to effectively use the media,
passively and actively, and to participate in public debate and
public affairs, is being increasingly take up by Council of Europe
bodies, like the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly.
69. Yet, considerable challenges remain to advance these ongoing
efforts and to render them more effective. The report has shown
– even in its relatively limited selection of available examples
– that there is enormous variety in how member States organise and
promote media literacy. The Committee of Ministers in its Recommendation
CM/Rec(2018)1 calls on member States to promote national policies
and networks, and to invest in curricular development and in non-curricular
initiatives to integrate media literacy into life-long learning
schemes. Vision, organisation, collaboration and investment are
key words for the realisation of these goals. The above examples
document a great wealth of initiatives; the challenge remains to
achieve synergies and invest in the structural educational development
of media literacy, in close partnership with actors from other sectors.
However, without clear mandates and adequate resources, media literacy
will remain contingent on private and voluntary endeavours, whereas
sustainable solutions are needed.
70. The revised Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD) from
the European Commission also strengthens the role of media literacy
and requires member States to promote and take measures for the development
of media literacy skills, and video-sharing platforms are obliged
to provide for effective media literacy measures and tools. Elements
of media literacy are addressed as well in the European Commission “Communication
on tackling online disinformation: a European approach”, which outlines inter alia the need to foster education
and media literacy for tackling disinformation online. A positive
development aimed at improving critical thinking and digital media
literacy is the EU Code of Practice on online disinformation, supporting
an independent network of fact-checkers and quality journalism,
signed by major tech platforms and advertisers.
71. We can see that there is a significant number of great projects
happening, which is a positive trend given that need for media literacy
is more urgent now than ever before. At the same time, some challenges
persist in relation to media literacy policy implementation and
media education, notably:
- Devolved responsibility, especially
in countries like the United Kingdom and Germany: it is very difficult to
create one system or policy that would work for everyone. This is
compounded by the fact that there is a constant debate about whether
media literacy should be cross-curricular or subject specific.
- Teacher support: media
literacy needs are evolving at a rapid pace, at times faster than
media literacy curriculum can be developed and delivered in classrooms.
Teachers need more support and training especially if media literacy
is delivered as cross-curricular subject.
- Funding and co-ordination at
national and international levels: media and information literacy
touches on so many policy areas, that there is constant risk of
it falling between different policy areas. While everyone can see
the benefit of promoting media and information literacy, nobody
has the overall responsibility to make it happen. This can make
it difficult to secure long-term funding for media and information
literacy projects and more importantly, it can make it hard to see
what sector or organisations should be providing leadership.
- Cross-sector collaboration: The
2016 European Audiovisual Observatory report mapping the most significant
projects in promotion of media literacy in the EU 28 member States
showed that over two-thirds of the organisations identified in the
study, which were promoting media literacy, did not have a statutory
responsibility around media literacy. It also showed that “cross-sector
collaboration” was a key aspect of delivering a significant media
literacy projects. But the same report also shows that there was a
lack of platforms at a national level to facilitate effective cross-section
collaboration.
72. Given these and other challenges to meet, as well as the complexity
of the whole picture regarding media education and media literacy
in the Council of Europe area, this report can constitute an intermediary step
towards a harmonised action plan at the European level. However,
already at this stage, the Assembly could play an instrumental role
in encouraging the adoption and implementation of national policy
plans for the operationalisation of the promotion of media literacy
and education; in fostering the development of national, multi-actor
and multi-sectoral media literacy networks; and in boosting stronger
internet intermediaries’ commitment and contributions to the promotion
of media literacy and education.